Exodus Chapter 21
The Divisions of the Law
The Law given by God to Israel is generally divided into three major divisions: the moral law, the civil law, and the ceremonial law. The moral law is typified by the Ten Commandments in Exodus chapter 20, which express God’s direct claim upon His human creatures. This portion of the Law reveals God’s holy character and establishes universal moral standards that transcend time and culture. The civil law, found in Exodus chapters 21 through 23, contains social and judicial regulations that governed the Hebrew commonwealth. These laws addressed matters such as slavery, property rights, and personal injury, serving as legal guidance for the judges who would administer justice among the people. The ceremonial law, which includes the laws concerning purification, the priesthood, sacrifices, and sacred rituals, governed Israel’s religious life and worship. Much of the ceremonial law is found throughout Exodus, and the book of Leviticus is devoted almost entirely to this division. These three aspects of the Law together formed a complete covenantal system that directed Israel’s moral behavior, civil conduct, and spiritual devotion toward God.
Rules for Slaves
The laws regarding slaves may seem foreign to modern culture, as slavery no longer exists within our social framework. When people today think of slavery, they often recall systems marked by severe cruelty and abuse. However, in the ancient world, including Israel, slavery was an accepted part of the economic and social order. Within that context, the Mosaic Law’s instructions concerning slaves were remarkably protective and humane compared to other nations.
A person could become a slave through various circumstances. One way was by being taken captive in war. In ancient times, the usual practice was to kill prisoners of war, but sparing a captive’s life made him indebted to his captors. Scripture records this custom in passages such as Numbers 31:26 and Deuteronomy 20:10. To be enslaved was, therefore, a preferable alternative to execution. In most ancient cultures, such captivity meant a permanent loss of freedom. Yet, under the Hebrew system, servitude was temporary, limited to six years. As written in Exodus 21:2, “If you buy a Hebrew servant, he shall serve six years; and in the seventh he shall go out free and pay nothing.” If a person chose to remain beyond the sixth year, it became a voluntary act of lifelong service, forming what Scripture calls a “bondslave.” Some servants elected this willingly, as their masters provided food, shelter, protection, and steady employment. In such cases, a ritual was performed to symbolize permanent devotion, as described later in Exodus 21:5–6.
Slavery could also occur through purchase, as seen in Exodus 12:44, Leviticus 22:11, and Leviticus 25:44–45. However, Hebrew law strictly forbade selling a Hebrew slave to foreigners (Deuteronomy 7:1–3). A Hebrew servant was always to be released after the sixth year, ensuring no permanent servitude among God’s people.
In some cases, children were sold to pay off family debts, as reflected in passages such as 2 Kings 4:1–7, Isaiah 1:1, Amos 2:6, Amos 8:6, Nehemiah 5:5, and Proverbs 22:7. Likewise, individuals could sell themselves into servitude to settle financial obligations. Yet, under God’s law, all such servants were to be set free in the seventh year. Moreover, when a servant was released, the master was required to provide him with resources to begin a new life. As stated in Deuteronomy 15:12–14, “If your brother, a Hebrew man, or a Hebrew woman, is sold to you and serves you six years, then in the seventh year you shall let him go free from you. And when you send him away free from you, you shall not let him go away empty-handed; you shall supply him liberally from your flock, from your threshing floor, and from your winepress. From what the LORD your God has blessed you with, you shall give to him.”
Although these regulations may seem foreign to modern readers, they were a compassionate provision in their economic context. The Law of Moses ensured dignity, fairness, and opportunity for restoration even for those who fell into servitude, demonstrating God’s care for all members of society, including the most vulnerable.
Christ in the Center
Whenever a passage of Scripture seems difficult to understand, one of the most effective interpretive principles is to place Jesus Christ at the center of it and examine it through the lens of His person and work. The passage concerning servants provides an example of this, for the ultimate, perfect Servant is Jesus Christ Himself. In Psalm 40:6, it is written, “Sacrifice and offering You did not desire; My ears You have opened; burnt offering and sin offering You did not require.” The phrase “My ears You have opened” (or “digged”) points to the imagery of the bondslave—one who willingly submits to permanent servitude out of love and devotion. This typologically foreshadows Christ, who humbled Himself in obedience to the Father.
This theme continues throughout Scripture. In Isaiah 42:1, God declares, “Behold! My Servant whom I uphold, My Elect One in whom My soul delights! I have put My Spirit upon Him; He will bring forth justice to the Gentiles.” Likewise, Isaiah 52:13–53:11 presents the suffering Servant, despised and rejected by men, yet bearing the sins of many. Zechariah 3:8 refers to “My Servant the BRANCH,” again pointing prophetically to Christ. In Philippians 2:5–8, Paul describes this humility, saying, “Let this mind be in you which was also in Christ Jesus, who, being in the form of God, did not consider it robbery to be equal with God, but made Himself of no reputation, taking the form of a bondservant, and coming in the likeness of men. And being found in appearance as a man, He humbled Himself and became obedient to the point of death, even the death of the cross.”
The Gospel of Mark in particular emphasizes Jesus as the Servant of God. In Hebrews 10:9, the writer records Christ’s submission: “Then He said, ‘Behold, I have come to do Your will, O God.’ He takes away the first that He may establish the second.” Jesus’ servant obedience is seen from His youth, as in Luke 2:49, where He said, “Why did you seek Me? Did you not know that I must be about My Father’s business?” He reaffirmed this obedience in John 6:38, saying, “For I have come down from heaven, not to do My own will, but the will of Him who sent Me.” Again in Luke 22:27, He declared, “For who is greater, he who sits at the table, or he who serves? Is it not he who sits at the table? Yet I am among you as the One who serves.”
Jesus’ role as the Servant did not end when He ascended into heaven. Even now, He continues that ministry by interceding on behalf of believers. In John 13, when Jesus washed the disciples’ feet, He demonstrated the ongoing humility and service that characterize His relationship with His people. Luke 12:37 presents a prophetic image of His future service to the faithful: “Blessed are those servants whom the master, when he comes, will find watching. Assuredly, I say to you that he will gird himself and have them sit down to eat, and will come and serve them.”
In Galatians 4:4, we read, “But when the fullness of the time had come, God sent forth His Son, born of a woman, born under the law.” Jesus became a man and lived under the law, fulfilling it perfectly. In Matthew 5:17, He said, “Do not think that I came to destroy the Law or the Prophets. I did not come to destroy but to fulfill.” His resurrection was the ultimate proof of the sufficiency of His sacrifice, demonstrating that He was indeed sinless and that His atonement fully satisfied divine justice.
If the servant came without a wife, he was to depart without one. This connects to the imagery of Israel as the idolatrous wife of Jehovah. In Isaiah 50:1, the Lord says, “Thus says the LORD: ‘Where is the certificate of your mother’s divorce, whom I have put away? Or which of My creditors is it to whom I have sold you? For your iniquities you have sold yourselves, and for your transgressions your mother has been put away.’” Israel, as seen also in the book of Hosea, is depicted as an unfaithful wife who was divorced but will one day be restored. In John 12:23, Jesus spoke of His redemptive mission, saying, “The hour has come that the Son of Man should be glorified.”
The restored wife is often understood to be Millennial Israel, as foretold in Isaiah 54:4–8, where God promises, “Do not fear, for you will not be ashamed; neither be disgraced, for you will not be put to shame… For your Maker is your husband, the LORD of hosts is His name; and your Redeemer is the Holy One of Israel; He is called the God of the whole earth.” Likewise, John 11:51–52 says that Jesus would “die for the nation, and not for that nation only, but also that He would gather together in one the children of God who were scattered abroad.” Some hold that Christ’s atoning death was for the household of God only, as seen in Matthew 1:21—“And she will bring forth a Son, and you shall call His name JESUS, for He will save His people from their sins”—and John 1:11, “He came to His own, and His own did not receive Him.” Other supporting passages include Hebrews 2:17, “Therefore, in all things He had to be made like His brethren, that He might be a merciful and faithful High Priest in things pertaining to God, to make propitiation for the sins of the people,” and Hebrews 9:28, “So Christ was offered once to bear the sins of many. To those who eagerly wait for Him He will appear a second time, apart from sin, for salvation.”
While not every ordinance in the Law directly portrays Christ, many contain principles and patterns that foreshadow His person and ministry. Applying this Christ-centered lens allows the believer to see the unity of Scripture and to appreciate how the Holy Spirit reveals the fullness of God’s plan in Christ through even the most obscure passages.
Rules for Homicide or Injury
The laws concerning homicide and personal injury are consistent with the covenant God established with Noah in Genesis 9:6, which states, “Whoever sheds man’s blood, by man his blood shall be shed; for in the image of God He made man.” These statutes uphold the sanctity of human life and establish clear distinctions between premeditated murder and accidental manslaughter. Intentional murder received the most severe penalty because it demonstrated deliberate rebellion against the Creator, who alone holds the right over life and death.
There was no pardon or mitigation for willful murder. The underlying theological principle is that life itself belongs to God. Human beings are merely stewards, leasing their lives for a time under His authority. To take another person’s life is, therefore, an affront to God’s sovereignty and creative purpose—a form of blasphemy against His image. Similarly, to take one’s own life is the ultimate act of defiance against God’s ownership, rejecting the gift of life and His right to govern it. Throughout Scripture, God’s Word consistently treats such presumptions with the utmost severity, underscoring that human life is sacred because it bears the divine image and exists solely under His authority.
Laws to Direct Judges
A. Laws Regarding Servitude
(Exodus 21:1)
“Now these are the judgments which you shall set before them.”
This verse introduces a new section of the Mosaic Law that deals with the civil regulations governing Israel’s community life. Exodus chapters 21 through 23 contain a collection of “judgments” (Hebrew mishpatim), meaning legal decisions or ordinances that were to serve as precedents for the judges appointed by Moses. These laws touch on every aspect of society and human conduct, illustrating God’s concern for righteousness, justice, and order within His covenant nation.
These chapters include laws on:
• Employment and the treatment of servants.
• Murder, manslaughter, and violent assault.
• Liability for animals and property damage.
• Theft, restitution, and responsibility for another’s goods.
• Sexual misconduct, rape, dowries, and the value of purity.
• Idolatry, sorcery, and false worship.
• Compassion toward the poor, widows, orphans, and foreigners.
• Lending, interest, and property rights.
• The administration of justice and impartiality before the law.
Each of these categories reveals the moral heartbeat of the Law—the value of human life and the pursuit of peace and righteousness in the community. As Adam Clarke noted, these regulations are “remarkable for their justice and prudence as for their humanity,” and they were designed to prevent sin by establishing a godly social order.
When God told Moses to “set these judgments before them,” He meant that these laws were to be clearly taught, explained, and publicly administered. They served not only as direct commands but as guiding principles for Israel’s magistrates to apply in future cases. As Kaiser observes, these “judgments” provided precedents for Israel’s civil courts, ensuring justice was rooted in divine revelation rather than human opinion.
(Exodus 21:2–4)
“If you buy a Hebrew servant, he shall serve six years; and in the seventh he shall go out free and pay nothing. If he comes in by himself, he shall go out by himself; if he comes in married, then his wife shall go out with him. If his master has given him a wife, and she has borne him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall be her master’s, and he shall go out by himself.”
With this passage, the Lord begins His ordinances concerning servitude, beginning with the treatment of Hebrew servants. The term “servant” (ebed in Hebrew) in this context refers to a bondservant or indentured laborer, not a slave in the cruel or racialized sense familiar from later history. Ancient Israel, like the rest of the ancient world, had systems of servitude as part of its economy. However, the Mosaic Law radically elevated the dignity of those in service by instituting limits, rights, and protections that no other ancient law code provided.
It is important to recognize that slavery existed long before Israel or Moses, yet the Bible is not the source of slavery but rather the foundation for its eventual abolition. As Spurgeon wrote, “Moses did not institute slavery in any shape; the laws concerning it were made on purpose to repress it, to confine it within very narrow bounds, and ultimately to put an end to it.” The Torah accepted the existence of servitude as part of fallen human society, yet it introduced humanitarian principles that would become the deathblow to slavery in the long term.
The first section of this code begins with the rights of servants—an intentional and striking decision. The God who brought Israel out of bondage begins His laws by ensuring that His people never oppress others as they had been oppressed. As Chadwick observed, “The first words of God from Sinai had declared that He was Jehovah who brought them out of slavery. And in this remarkable code, the first person whose rights are dealt with is the slave.”
The Hebrew Servant
A Hebrew might become a servant to another Hebrew through several lawful means:
Extreme poverty – A man could sell his labor to survive, as stated in Leviticus 25:39: “And if one of your brethren who dwells by you becomes poor, and sells himself to you, you shall not compel him to serve as a slave.”
A father’s arrangement for his daughter – A father might sell his daughter as a servant, with the intention that she would eventually be married into that household (Exodus 21:7).
Bankruptcy or debt – A debtor might become a servant to his creditor, as seen in 2 Kings 4:1, where a widow’s sons faced servitude to pay a debt.
Restitution for theft – A thief without means to repay was sold into servitude to satisfy restitution (Exodus 22:3–4).
In each case, this arrangement was temporary, voluntary, and governed by divine law. It was not equivalent to the forced, lifelong enslavement found in pagan cultures. Rather, it was a regulated system of indentured labor designed to preserve dignity and promote restoration. Servitude in Israel was typically:
• Chosen or mutually agreed upon.
• Limited to six years in duration.
• Closely regulated for fairness and humane treatment.
The Limitation and Freedom of the Hebrew Servant
The servant’s term was limited to six years, after which he was to be released without payment: “He shall serve six years; and in the seventh he shall go out free and pay nothing.” This ensured that no Hebrew remained bound indefinitely, preserving liberty as a divine right. As Cole noted, “He was, more properly, an indentured laborer, bound for six years.” Adam Clarke compared it to an apprenticeship: “It was nearly the same as in some cases of apprenticeship among us.”
G. Campbell Morgan concluded that these laws “abolished slavery and substituted for it covenanted labor.” Under this God-ordained system, a servant worked by mutual agreement, retained personal dignity, and was assured release after a fixed period. Thus, Israel’s treatment of servants stood in sharp contrast to the cruel practices of surrounding nations and marked the beginning of a moral revolution regarding human freedom.
Conditions of Family and Property During Servitude
If the servant entered his service unmarried, he was to depart unmarried. If he was already married, his wife was released with him at the end of his term. However, if the master had provided him a wife—often another servant under the master’s household—the wife and any children remained with the master until their own obligations were fulfilled.
Cole explains the Hebrew phrase “by himself” literally means “with his back,” signifying that the man came with nothing more than the clothes on his back. The regulation might appear harsh to modern readers, but it reflects the legal reality of property and obligation under that economy. The wife in this case was not abandoned but remained under the master’s care until she too was lawfully released or redeemed.
This distinction established clear boundaries of responsibility within ancient Israelite society, ensuring that family and economic relations were both structured and protected by divine justice. It also emphasized the temporary nature of servitude, reminding Israel that freedom and dignity were central to God’s covenant order.
The Bond-Slave: A Willing Servant for Life (Exodus 21:5–6)
“But if the servant plainly says, ‘I love my master, my wife, and my children; I will not go out free,’ then his master shall bring him to the judges. He shall also bring him to the door, or to the doorpost, and his master shall pierce his ear with an awl; and he shall serve him forever.”
In this passage, Scripture presents one of the most beautiful portraits of voluntary, lifelong devotion in all the Law. The bond-slave was not a man forced into perpetual servitude, but one who, after six years of service, freely chose to remain with his master out of love. His words, “I love my master, my wife, and my children; I will not go out free,” reflected a heart of gratitude and loyalty rather than obligation. This act was not driven by debt or necessity but by a deep affection for the master’s goodness and generosity.
When a servant made such a declaration, the master was required to bring him before the judges (Hebrew: Elohim, meaning representatives of God in judicial matters). This public act ensured that the decision was made freely and deliberately. The ceremony took place at the door or doorpost of the master’s house, symbolizing entrance into a permanent covenantal relationship of service. The master would pierce the servant’s ear with an awl, marking him as a lifelong member of that household. As Kaiser explains, “The judges changed the slave’s status from temporary to permanent by a ceremony at the doorpost of the master’s house.”
The pierced ear signified that the servant’s ear had been opened in obedience, permanently attentive to the will of his master. It was an outward sign of inward devotion, done in the presence of witnesses. F. B. Meyer insightfully notes that “the awl represents the nail that affixed Christ to the cross, and we must expect it in every true act of consecration.” The ceremony reflected not humiliation but consecration.
This imagery finds its ultimate fulfillment in Jesus Christ, who became the perfect bond-slave of the Father. Psalm 40:6 says, “Sacrifice and offering You did not desire; my ears You have opened. Burnt offering and sin offering You did not require.” This prophetic verse, later echoed in Hebrews 10:5–7, points to Christ’s voluntary submission to the Father’s will. Philippians 2:7 further declares that Jesus “made Himself of no reputation, taking the form of a bondservant, and coming in the likeness of men.” Christ’s obedience, even unto death, demonstrated the ultimate act of loving servitude.
For believers, this passage represents more than ancient custom—it reflects our spiritual reality. Though Jesus called us friends and not mere servants (John 15:15: “No longer do I call you servants, for a servant does not know what his master is doing; but I have called you friends, for all things that I heard from My Father I have made known to you.”), the apostles gloried in being called His bondservants. Paul, James, Peter, and Jude all introduced themselves this way: Romans 1:1, “Paul, a bondservant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, separated to the gospel of God.”; James 1:1, “James, a bondservant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ.”; 2 Peter 1:1, “Simon Peter, a bondservant and apostle of Jesus Christ.”; and Jude 1:1, “Jude, a bondservant of Jesus Christ, and brother of James.”
Paul even bore physical scars that testified to his lifelong service to Christ, saying in Galatians 6:17, “From now on let no one trouble me, for I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus.” These marks were not literal branding as pagan slaves bore, but the wounds and scars of persecution suffered for Christ’s sake—proof that he belonged to his Master forever.
The bond-slave is thus a powerful picture of our own relationship to Jesus Christ. We are free, yet we willingly surrender our freedom out of love for the One who redeemed us. Our obedience is not born of fear or compulsion, but of devotion. Like the servant who submitted his ear to be pierced, the believer submits his heart to be marked with permanent allegiance to Christ. The principle stands clear:
We have the power to go free if we choose.
We must accept the consequences of chosen service.
We must be motivated solely by love for our Master.
This is the essence of true discipleship—loving submission to the Lord Jesus Christ, not as a taskmaster, but as the gracious Master who purchased us with His blood.
The Rights of Female Servants (Exodus 21:7–11)
“And if a man sells his daughter to be a female slave, she shall not go out as the male slaves do. If she does not please her master, who has betrothed her to himself, then he shall let her be redeemed. He shall have no right to sell her to a foreign people, since he has dealt deceitfully with her. And if he has betrothed her to his son, he shall deal with her according to the custom of daughters. If he takes another wife, he shall not diminish her food, her clothing, and her marriage rights. And if he does not do these three for her, then she shall go out free, without paying money.”
This section of the Law addresses a unique and sensitive circumstance—when a father sells his daughter into a household with the intention of her eventual marriage into that family. The passage begins, “If a man sells his daughter to be a female slave,” but the context makes clear that this arrangement was not slavery in the typical sense; it was a dowry-based contractual relationship involving future marital rights. As Kaiser explains, “This refers to a girl who is sold by her father, not for slavery, but for marriage.”
In the ancient Near Eastern world, families often entered such agreements to secure their daughters’ future and to alleviate poverty. Cole notes that “probably the origin of the custom was to avoid paying a higher bride-price at a later age and to rear the future daughter-in-law within the family, ensuring that she fitted in.” These arrangements, while foreign to modern sensibilities, were often practical economic measures in societies without social safety nets.
However, unlike the practices of surrounding pagan nations, the Mosaic Law placed strict limits and protections around this practice. If the master who arranged the betrothal became displeased or decided not to proceed with marriage, he was required to allow her redemption. He could not sell her to a foreign people under any circumstance, for that would violate the covenantal principle protecting Israelite women. This is a profound departure from the customs of other ancient cultures, where women could be discarded or sold without recourse.
If the master instead gave her in marriage to his son, he was required to treat her “according to the custom of daughters”—meaning she was to be regarded and cared for as a legitimate daughter of the family, not as property. This included full provision for her well-being and dignity. If the husband later took another wife, he was forbidden to reduce her food, clothing, or marital rights. These three necessities—provision, protection, and affection—were guaranteed by law.
Cole comments that the term “food” in this verse refers not merely to sustenance but to a fair share of household provisions and luxuries, implying respect and equality within the home. If the husband failed to fulfill these obligations, she was released from all contractual obligations and went out free, without any payment. This safeguard demonstrated God’s justice and compassion toward the most vulnerable in society.
Thomas observes that “the right of a parent to sell his daughter was carefully guarded against abuse.” Indeed, the entire passage reveals a divine concern for fairness and human dignity, even in the complexities of ancient economic life. God Himself acted as the protector of those who had no earthly protector, ensuring that every person, regardless of status, was treated with honor and justice.
B. Laws Regarding Violence and Disability
(Exodus 21:12–14)
“He who strikes a man so that he dies shall surely be put to death. However, if he did not lie in wait, but God delivered him into his hand, then I will appoint for you a place where he may flee. But if a man acts with premeditation against his neighbor, to kill him by treachery, you shall take him from My altar, that he may die.”
This passage establishes the fundamental distinction between murder and manslaughter in the administration of justice under the Mosaic Law. The command “He who strikes a man so that he dies shall surely be put to death” forms the foundation for capital punishment, a principle first instituted in Genesis 9:6, “Whoever sheds man’s blood, by man his blood shall be shed; for in the image of God He made man.” Life is sacred because it bears the image of God; therefore, the deliberate taking of human life demands just retribution. The New Testament affirms this divine principle in Romans 13:3–4, which declares that governing authorities “do not bear the sword in vain; for he is God’s minister, an avenger to execute wrath on him who practices evil.”
The Lord instructed Israel’s judges to carefully distinguish between acts of premeditated violence and accidental deaths. The words “if he did not lie in wait” signify a lack of intent, meaning the death occurred without forethought or malice. In such cases, God promised to appoint “a place where he may flee.” However, when the act was deliberate — “if a man acts with premeditation against his neighbor, to kill him by treachery” — then no mercy or sanctuary was to be granted.
God declared, “You shall take him from My altar, that he may die.” In ancient cultures, altars were often seen as places of refuge. A fugitive could seize the horns of the altar and appeal for divine mercy. 1 Kings 2:28 describes such an act: “Then Joab fled to the tabernacle of the LORD, and took hold of the horns of the altar.” Yet, God’s command nullified any misuse of sacred privilege. No religious ritual could shield the guilty from justice. As Cole notes, “The supplicant would catch hold of the projecting ‘horns’ of the altar. This was tantamount to dedicating himself to YHWH, like any animal sacrifice bound with ropes to the altar horns.”
God’s insistence on execution for intentional murderers reflects the seriousness with which He regards the shedding of innocent blood. Numbers 35:31, 33–34 reinforces this truth: “Moreover you shall take no ransom for the life of a murderer who is guilty of death, but he shall surely be put to death… So you shall not pollute the land where you are; for blood defiles the land, and no atonement can be made for the land, for the blood that is shed on it, except by the blood of him who shed it. Therefore do not defile the land which you inhabit, in the midst of which I dwell; for I the LORD dwell among the children of Israel.”
This principle remains sobering today, for unpunished murders defile any land. Societies that treat life lightly invite God’s judgment, for He alone is the Author and Owner of life.
The Lord’s mercy, however, also provided for the innocent. The phrase “I will appoint for you a place where he may flee” refers to the later establishment of the cities of refuge described in Numbers 35 and Joshua 20. These were sanctuaries for those guilty of manslaughter, allowing them protection from the “avenger of blood” until their case was properly adjudicated. Clarke explains, “From the earliest times the nearest akin had a right to revenge the murder of his relation… but as this might be abused, and a person who had killed another accidentally might be put to death by the avenger of blood, therefore God provided the cities of refuge.”
Through this law, we see both God’s perfect justice and His mercy in balance: the deliberate murderer faced death, while the unintentional killer received temporary asylum and due process. This distinction demonstrates the divine wisdom and fairness of Israel’s judicial system — an early expression of principles still foundational in modern law.
(Exodus 21:15–17)
“And he who strikes his father or his mother shall surely be put to death. He who kidnaps a man and sells him, or if he is found in his hand, shall surely be put to death. And he who curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death.”
This next section extends the application of capital punishment to three severe offenses: violence against parents, kidnapping, and cursing or threatening parents.
First, “He who strikes his father or his mother shall surely be put to death.” This command must be read in the context of Exodus 21:12, which condemns murder. The Hebrew term for “strikes” implies a blow of intent — an attempt to harm or kill. The command therefore refers to a child who commits or attempts the murder of a parent. Such rebellion against parental authority was treated as rebellion against God Himself, who established the family as the first and most fundamental human institution.
Second, “He who kidnaps a man and sells him, or if he is found in his hand, shall surely be put to death.” This law classifies kidnapping as a capital crime, emphasizing that the theft of human freedom is equivalent to murder in God’s eyes. Deuteronomy 24:7 echoes this: “If a man is found kidnapping any of his brethren of the children of Israel, and treats him as a slave or sells him, then that kidnapper shall die; and you shall put away the evil from among you.”
Cole notes, “Kidnapping for slavery was common in the ancient world,” but in God’s law, it was utterly condemned. This distinction is crucial when evaluating biblical servitude. Biblical slavery, as regulated in Exodus and Leviticus, was not based on man-stealing or racial subjugation. It was temporary, voluntary, and regulated under God’s justice. In contrast, the slavery practiced in most pagan societies — and tragically, later in the transatlantic slave trade — was built upon kidnapping, which Scripture explicitly forbids and punishes with death.
Kaiser clarifies that kidnapping is not classified under property offenses, for “no property offense draws a capital punishment.” Rather, it is the theft of a human life — the ultimate violation of God’s image in man. Cole insightfully adds that the phrase “or if he is found in his hand” may be rendered “and is caught with the money in his hand,” implying irrefutable evidence of the crime.
Third, “He who curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death.” Here, the Hebrew concept of “curse” carries the sense of a deliberate wish for harm or death upon one’s parent — essentially a verbal or spiritual death threat. Cole explains, “To curse was to will and pray the downfall of the other with all one’s heart; it represented the attitude from which sprang acts like striking or murder.”
Although the law was severe, it upheld a foundational truth — respect for parental authority sustains the moral fabric of society. The Fourth Commandment had already declared, “Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long upon the land which the LORD your God is giving you” (Exodus 20:12). When this respect collapses, civilization decays.
Importantly, the Law of Moses also protected children from parental abuse of authority. Deuteronomy 21:18–21 required that any child accused of rebellion be brought before the elders and judges, ensuring impartial justice. Parents could not execute their own children; the community had to investigate and decide. This provision restrained the power of parents and reflected divine fairness.
The principle behind these commands is timeless. A society that allows open hostility between generations destroys itself from within. Modern parallels can be seen in movements that devalue the elderly or promote euthanasia under the guise of mercy, effectively permitting the younger to destroy the older. God’s law upholds the sanctity of family order and intergenerational respect as vital to a stable and godly nation.
(Exodus 21:18–19)
“If men contend with each other, and one strikes the other with a stone or with his fist, and he does not die but is confined to his bed, if he rises again and walks about outside with his staff, then he who struck him shall be acquitted. He shall only pay for the loss of his time, and shall provide for him to be thoroughly healed.”
This passage introduces the principle of compensation for personal injury, illustrating how God’s Law governed justice, fairness, and restitution in cases of physical conflict. When two men engaged in a dispute resulting in injury but not death, the aggressor bore financial responsibility for the recovery and lost wages of the injured party. The command, “He shall only pay for the loss of his time, and shall provide for him to be thoroughly healed,” establishes the biblical foundation for what we might today call “civil liability.”
The law assumes the aggressor’s intent was not to kill, for if the victim died, the case would instead fall under the laws of homicide in Exodus 21:12–14. But if the injured man survived and later recovered—able to “walk about outside with his staff”—the aggressor’s punishment was not death but restitution. He was acquitted of capital guilt yet obligated to make the victim whole again.
This distinction shows the moral sophistication of God’s justice. Rather than promoting vengeance, it required personal accountability and practical restoration. These laws parallel similar regulations found in ancient Near Eastern codes such as the Code of Hammurabi and the Hittite Laws, yet the Mosaic Law was distinct in its fairness and humanity. Other codes often valued people based on social class, but Israel’s law treated all citizens as equal under God’s standard of justice.
The requirement that the aggressor “provide for him to be thoroughly healed” reflects God’s concern for human dignity and recovery. It reminds us that though modern systems have often commercialized such principles, the moral foundation remains sound—those who cause injury to others are responsible to make restitution. Greed may distort such principles today, but the biblical mandate for compensation is rooted in justice, not exploitation.
(Exodus 21:20–21)
“And if a man beats his male or female servant with a rod, so that he dies under his hand, he shall surely be punished. Notwithstanding, if he remains alive a day or two, he shall not be punished; for he is his property.”
This section continues the theme of justice by applying it even to servants, again demonstrating the remarkable moral elevation of the Mosaic Law above other ancient codes. In most ancient societies, a master could kill a servant without consequence. Servants were seen purely as property, not persons. In contrast, God’s Law declares that the life of a servant has value and that masters are accountable for their actions.
The phrase “so that he dies under his hand, he shall surely be punished” establishes that a servant’s life was protected by law. This acknowledgment of personhood represents a radical departure from the cruelty of pagan cultures. As Cole observes, “The great advance on ancient thinking is that the slave is considered here as a person.” In God’s eyes, every human being, regardless of status, bears His image and is therefore worthy of justice.
However, the law also distinguishes between intentional murder and disciplinary correction. If the servant lived for a day or two after being struck, it was taken as evidence that the master’s intent was corrective, not homicidal. The principle was that justice must consider intent and outcome—a vital safeguard against rash judgment. Adam Clarke notes, “All penal laws should be construed as favorably as possible to the accused.” The Mosaic system provided mercy where intent was uncertain, showing fairness in both judgment and protection.
The phrase “for he is his property” (literally, “because he is his money”) does not devalue the servant’s humanity. Instead, it acknowledges that the master had invested financially in the servant’s service. As Kaiser clarifies, this “does not mean that men are mere chattel, but that the owner has an investment in this slave that he stands to lose either by death or emancipation.” Thus, the law balanced the rights of the servant as a person with the economic realities of the time.
Moreover, this legal principle carries a deeper spiritual application. Just as servants in Israel were bound to their masters until their obligations were fulfilled, so every person in a spiritual sense serves one of two masters. Romans 6:16–18 declares, “Do you not know that to whom you present yourselves slaves to obey, you are that one’s slaves whom you obey, whether of sin leading to death, or of obedience leading to righteousness? But God be thanked that though you were slaves of sin, yet you obeyed from the heart that form of doctrine to which you were delivered. And having been set free from sin, you became slaves of righteousness.” Humanity is never truly free in an absolute sense—we are either slaves to sin or servants of Christ.
Under the New Covenant, this picture is transformed into one of joyful servitude. The believer belongs to Christ, who purchased him with His blood. 1 Corinthians 6:19–20 says, “Or do you not know that your body is the temple of the Holy Spirit who is in you, whom you have from God, and you are not your own? For you were bought at a price; therefore glorify God in your body and in your spirit, which are God’s.” The ancient master-servant relationship foreshadows this eternal truth: every person serves a master, and true liberty is found only in the gracious rule of Jesus Christ.
In summary, these laws reveal God’s wisdom in balancing justice, mercy, and social order. They teach that all human life is valuable, that intention matters in judgment, and that justice must always reflect both righteousness and compassion.
(Exodus 21:22–25)
“If men fight, and hurt a woman with child, so that she gives birth prematurely, yet no harm follows, he shall surely be punished accordingly as the woman’s husband imposes on him; and he shall pay as the judges determine. But if any harm follows, then you shall give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.”
This passage sets forth one of the most important principles in biblical law — the law of retribution (lex talionis). It illustrates divine justice in both protecting the vulnerable and limiting human vengeance. The scenario presented involves two men engaged in conflict who accidentally strike a pregnant woman, causing premature labor.
If the mother and child survive without lasting harm, the aggressor must still be fined, with the penalty determined by the husband and ratified by the judges. However, if either mother or child is injured or killed, the law requires proportionate justice: “life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth.”
This passage is foundational in affirming the sanctity of both maternal and unborn life. The unborn child’s life is valued equally under the Law, indicating that God considers harm to the child as a serious offense. The offender is accountable for any loss of life — whether mother or child.
As Kaiser explains, “For the accidental assault, the offender must still pay some compensation, even though both mother and child survived…. The fee would be set by the woman’s husband and approved by a decision of the court.” The law thus balances compassion and structure — it avoids arbitrary vengeance while providing a clear path to restitution.
The phrase “eye for eye, tooth for tooth” does not authorize personal revenge but sets limits on retribution. It ensures that punishment fits the crime — neither too lenient nor excessive. Human nature tends to overreact, seeking to inflict more harm than suffered. This principle was God’s safeguard against the escalation of violence and vengeance.
In modern terms, this divine standard also warns against excessive punitive damages in civil law. Justice must be proportional to the offense, not exploited for personal gain. The law recognized human emotion but restrained it under measured justice.
The Mosaic instruction also clarifies that “life for life” was not applied indiscriminately. Numbers 35:31 explains, “Moreover you shall take no ransom for the life of a murderer who is guilty of death, but he shall surely be put to death.” This indicates that ransom payments were acceptable in cases of accidental death or non-premeditated harm, but not in murder. The penalty always fit the degree of guilt.
Thus, as Kaiser summarizes, “The defendant must surrender to the deceased child’s father or wife’s husband the monetary value of each life if either or both were harmed.” This preserved the moral integrity of the law while accommodating mercy where intent was absent.
This passage reveals that biblical justice is not vindictive but corrective, ensuring that society remains ordered, compassionate, and respectful of all life. It demonstrates God’s righteousness and His care for those who might otherwise have no defense — in this case, both women and the unborn.
(Exodus 21:26–27)
“If a man strikes the eye of his male or female servant, and destroys it, he shall let him go free for the sake of his eye. And if he knocks out the tooth of his male or female servant, he shall let him go free for the sake of his tooth.”
This provision extends the principle of lex talionis to include servants, showing again that God’s Law protected the dignity and rights of those in vulnerable positions. The passage establishes a striking balance: the servant is not merely property but a person with legal standing before God.
If a master caused serious injury — such as the loss of an eye or a tooth — the servant was to be immediately released. This freedom was considered a far greater restitution than physical compensation. The master not only lost the servant’s service but forfeited his ownership altogether.
This rule ensured that masters exercised restraint and fairness in discipline. It discouraged cruelty and encouraged humane treatment. As Clarke insightfully notes, “If this did not teach them humanity, it taught them caution, as one rash blow might have deprived them of all right to the future services of the slave; and this self-interest obliged them to be cautious and circumspect.”
The law does not appeal to the master’s emotions but to his sense of justice and responsibility. The Mosaic code consistently raised the moral standards of an ancient world that largely viewed servants as expendable tools. By giving the servant the right to freedom in the event of physical harm, God instilled a strong legal deterrent against abuse.
Furthermore, the principle carries a spiritual application. Just as an injured servant was granted liberty, so believers — once enslaved by sin — are set free through the injury Christ bore on their behalf. Isaiah 53:5 says, “But He was wounded for our transgressions, He was bruised for our iniquities; the chastisement for our peace was upon Him, and by His stripes we are healed.” The servant’s freedom through wounding foreshadows our deliverance through the suffering of Christ.
In essence, these laws remind us that God’s justice always defends the weak and restrains the strong. Every command reflects His character — holy, just, and merciful — ensuring that even those at the lowest levels of society are treated with fairness and dignity.
C. Laws Regarding Animal Control and Damage
(Exodus 21:28–32)
“If an ox gores a man or a woman to death, then the ox shall surely be stoned, and its flesh shall not be eaten; but the owner of the ox shall be acquitted. But if the ox tended to thrust with its horn in times past, and it has been made known to his owner, and he has not kept it confined, so that it has killed a man or a woman, the ox shall be stoned and its owner also shall be put to death. If there is imposed on him a sum of money, then he shall pay to redeem his life, whatever is imposed on him. Whether it has gored a son or gored a daughter, according to this judgment it shall be done to him. If the ox gores a male or female servant, he shall give to their master thirty shekels of silver, and the ox shall be stoned.”
This passage establishes the principles of justice, negligence, and restitution when an animal causes human death. The Mosaic Law holds both man and beast accountable, with the measure of guilt determined by knowledge and intent.
The law begins, “If an ox gores a man or a woman to death, then the ox shall surely be stoned, and its flesh shall not be eaten.” Even though the owner is acquitted, the animal is to be executed. This reflects the seriousness with which God views the shedding of blood. The ox, having taken life, must itself die. By prohibiting the eating of its flesh, God emphasized that no one should profit from or trivialize even accidental death. As Cole notes, “This means injury by oxen, since the Israelites kept no other animal capable of killing a human: horses were foreign luxuries.”
Adam Clarke observes that this law served “to keep up a due detestation of murder, whether committed by man or beast; and at the same time punished the man as far as possible, by the total loss of the beast.” In other words, human life is so valuable that even unintentional harm to it demands restitution and reflection.
The situation changes, however, when negligence is involved: “But if the ox tended to thrust with its horn in times past, and it has been made known to his owner, and he has not kept it confined, so that it has killed a man or a woman, the ox shall be stoned and its owner also shall be put to death.” Here, the owner’s guilt stems from knowledge and failure to act. Once the animal’s danger was known, his negligence made him complicit in its violence. The owner becomes a murderer by neglect.
Nevertheless, the law also allowed mercy: “If there is imposed on him a sum of money, then he shall pay to redeem his life, whatever is imposed on him.” This means that the victim’s family could accept financial restitution instead of demanding the death penalty. The compensation amount was determined by judicial authority, maintaining fairness.
The phrase “Whether it has gored a son or gored a daughter” underscores the equal value of every human life before God. The young, the old, the poor, and the free all bore His image and were to receive justice equally.
Finally, “If the ox gores a male or female servant, he shall give to their master thirty shekels of silver, and the ox shall be stoned.” The thirty shekels represented the standard price of a slave (see Leviticus 27:3–7). The master was compensated for his loss, and the ox was executed to preserve the sanctity of life. This value would later carry profound prophetic meaning, for it was the exact sum Judas received to betray Jesus Christ. Matthew 26:15 says, “And said, ‘What are you willing to give me if I deliver Him to you?’ And they counted out to him thirty pieces of silver.” This parallel underscores how the Son of God was valued at the price of a servant, yet His death was the ransom for all.
These laws display God’s perfect balance between justice and mercy. They show that negligence and intent matter in divine judgment and that human life—regardless of social standing—is sacred before the Lord.
(Exodus 21:33–36)
“And if a man opens a pit, or if a man digs a pit and does not cover it, and an ox or a donkey falls in it, the owner of the pit shall make it good; he shall give money to their owner, but the dead animal shall be his. If one man’s ox hurts another’s, so that it dies, then they shall sell the live ox and divide the money from it; and the dead ox they shall also divide. Or if it was known that the ox tended to thrust in time past, and its owner has not kept it confined, he shall surely pay ox for ox, and the dead animal shall be his own.”
This passage expands on the principles of negligence and restitution, emphasizing personal responsibility for one’s actions and property. The examples here, though specific to agricultural life, illustrate timeless moral principles of stewardship, fairness, and accountability.
The first situation deals with negligence through omission: “If a man opens a pit, or if a man digs a pit and does not cover it, and an ox or a donkey falls in it, the owner of the pit shall make it good.” In ancient Israel, pits were commonly used for grain storage, as animal traps, or even as prisons (Genesis 37:24; 2 Samuel 23:20). To leave such a pit uncovered was to create a hazard. If an animal fell in and died, the one responsible for the pit was liable to pay restitution to the animal’s owner. The dead animal then became the property of the negligent party, offsetting the cost of repayment.
This rule underscores a key biblical ethic: negligence that causes harm must be remedied through restitution. The moral weight of the command lies in its universal application. Whether an open pit, a broken fence, or any other careless act, the person who creates danger bears responsibility for its consequences.
The next case concerns disputes over livestock: “If one man’s ox hurts another’s, so that it dies, then they shall sell the live ox and divide the money from it; and the dead ox they shall also divide.” This rule applied when fault was uncertain or shared. Both parties suffered loss, and both shared in compensation. Such rulings required wise judicial discernment, ensuring fairness over favoritism.
However, if one owner was clearly negligent — “if it was known that the ox tended to thrust in time past, and its owner has not kept it confined” — then he bore full responsibility. He was required to pay “ox for ox,” fully compensating the other owner, and he forfeited the dead animal.
Cole notes the social importance of these judgments: “To a struggling Israelite farmer, fair payment for the death of an ox might mean the difference between life and death, or at least between freedom and slavery for debt.” Thus, these were not abstract laws but vital protections for families whose livelihoods depended on their animals.
Spiritually, these ordinances remind believers that God’s justice is not limited to moral or ritual matters but extends to everyday conduct and responsibility. The Lord expects His people to act with integrity, ensuring their actions—or negligence—do not harm others.
The Apostle Paul echoes this moral principle in Philippians 2:4, “Let each of you look out not only for his own interests, but also for the interests of others.” Even in seemingly small matters, God’s people are called to act with wisdom, fairness, and accountability.
