Leviticus Chapter 4
A. The procedure for the Sin Offering.
Six basic offerings (including the “Drink Offering from Numbers 15) could be brought to the Tabernacle altar. They each teach us something essential about Christ and His sacrifice on our behalf. They can be classified in three categories:
1) The Commitment to God
The Burnt Offering
The Grain or Meal (“meat,” KJV) Offering
[The Drink Offering (Num 15:1-10)]
These three speak of total dedication to the Lord. The other three met specific needs in the life of the worshiper and also expressed some truth about our relationship with Him.
2) The Communion with God
The Fellowship (“Peace,” KJV) Offering
3) The Cleansing from God
The Sin Offering
The Guilt (“Trespass,” KJV) Offering
This third category will be the subject of this session. These are the nonsweet savor offerings. The sweet savor offerings set forth the person of Christ in all of His glorious character. The two non-sweet savor offerings speak of the work of Christ on the cross for sin.
The Sin Offering speaks of the nature of sin. The Guilt (or Trespass) Offering speaks of sin as an act.
Man is a sinner because by nature, and he is a sinner because of what he does. He does what he does because he is a sinner by nature.
A man isn’t a horse thief because he steals a horse. He steals a horse because he is a horse thief.
Leviticus 4
The Sin Offering
The Sin Offering is distinctive in several ways: It is the longest account: twice as long as the others.
Burnt offering:
17 verses;
The Meal offering:
16 verses;
The Peace offering:
17 verses;
The Trespass offering:
19 verses;
The Sin offering:
35 verses.
It must be important. It is an entirely new offering. There is no previous record anywhere recorded. No heathen nation apparently had anything even similar to it.
From the giving of the Law, it became the most important and significant offering. The law revealed its necessity. It was offered during most of the feasts: Passover, Pentecost, Trumpets, Tabernacles; it was not only offered on Yom Kippur: it was what brought the High Priest into the Holy of Holies.
It was in contrast to the burnt sacrifice although it was made in the same place. The burnt offering tells who Christ is. The sin offering tells what Christ did.
In the burnt offering Christ meets the demands of God’s high and holy standard. In the sin offering Christ meets the deep and desperate needs of man. In the burnt offering we see the preciousness of Christ; in the sin offering we see the hatefulness of sin.
The burnt offering was a voluntary offering. The sin offering was commanded. The burnt offering ascended; the sin offering was poured out. One went up; the other went down.
1. (1-2) The purpose of the Sin Offering.
Now the LORD spoke to Moses, saying, “Speak to the children of Israel, saying: ‘If a person sins unintentionally against any of the commandments of the LORD in anything which ought not to be done, and does any of them,
As characterizes this entire book, the Lord spoke to Moses directly...
a. If a person sins unintentionally: The idea is not so much of an accidental sin, but of a sin committed by a person whose life is lived in general obedience and surrender to God. The contrast is between sins of human frailty, and sins of outright rebellion.
i. The root of the Hebrew word translated unintentionally has the idea of “to wander” or “to get lost.” No one intends to get lost; but when it happens, you are still lost – and, if truly lost, need to be rescued.
ii. Another contrast to an unintentional sin is to sin presumptuously (Numbers 15:30). Literally, the presumptuous sin of Numbers 15:30 is “to sin with a high hand.” There was no atonement available under the Old Covenant for the one whose heart was so defiantly turned against the LORD in presumptuous sin. We are grateful that under the New Covenant, there is atonement available for every sin (1 John 1:9).
iii. “No amount of sincerity can turn injustice into righteousness, or transform falsehood into truth.” (Spurgeon)
The emphasis is on a sin committed in ignorance. If a man sinned willfully and deliberately, this offering did not avail.
He that despised Moses’ law died without mercy under two or three witnesses:
Hebrews 10:28 There is no salvation for a person who rejects Jesus Christ.
For if we sin wilfully after that we have received the knowledge of the truth, there remaineth no more sacrifice for sins, But a certain fearful looking for of judgment and fiery indignation, which shall devour the adversaries.
Hebrews 10:26, 27
Sins of ignorance reveal the underlying truth that man is a sinner by nature. And God’s attitude against sin has never changed.
This conviction stands out in the entire literature of the human race. The deep guilt complex pervades our entire consciousness whether we admit it or not. And it must be diagnosed before a remedy can be prescribed.
We need to go to the couch of Jesus Christ—rather than the psychiatrist’s—and cry out,
Search me, O God, and know my heart: try me, and know my thoughts: And see if there be any wicked way in me, and lead me in the way everlasting.
Psalm 139:23-24; Cf. Psalm 19:12; 51:4
His Provision: The Cities of Refuge
If a man sinned through ignorance, rashness, or accident, God made provision for his deliverance. He established the six “cities of refuge” among the 48 cities of the Levites (Num 35:11-34).
Type of Christ? I believe that everything—even in the Torah—points to Jesus Christ. Every “jot and tittle.” I’ve been challenged on this extreme view—particularly in regards to this quaint provision in the Law. Let’s take a look.
Was the death of Jesus premeditated or manslaughter? From God’s point of view: “delivered by the determinate counsel and foreknowledge of God...” (Acts 2:23). Premeditated; 1st degree.
However, from man’s point of view (ours); “Then said Jesus, Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do” (Lk 23:34). Thus, it was for us, manslaughter.
And, thus, He, indeed, is our “city of refuge.” No one can touch us as long as we abide in Him. This was to endure until the High Priest died. (What has that got to do with anything? Why should the death of an official in far off Jerusalem have any impact on a fugitive in one of the six designated cities?) Then, however, the accused was free, indeed.
And so are we. And our High Priest “ever liveth to make intercession” for us! (Heb 7:25).
And if any man sin, we have an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous:
1 John 2:1 The sin offering teaches us that we must see ourselves as God sees us.
I acknowledged my sin unto thee, and mine iniquity have I not hid. I said, I will confess my transgressions unto the LORD; and thou forgavest the iniquity of my sin.
Psalm 32:5
God will deal with man in equity. There will be degrees of punishment just as there will be degrees of rewards. Different classes of people are considered separately.
The Priests
The priests—and we, as children of God—sin through ignorance, and that is not excused.
We can be cherishing some idol;
Or be cherishing pride like Hezekiah (Isa 39);
Or exhibiting blind zeal like the sons of Zebedee (Lk 9:55);
Or substituting labor for fellowship with God;
Or suffering “that woman Jezebel to teach and seduce” (Rev 2:20)...
Ai could not be taken with an accursed thing in the camp; mariners could not navigate to Tarshish with Jonah on board. Constant reexamination for secret sins is required for all.
b. Sins unintentionally: Leviticus 4:2 is the first time the word sin appears in Leviticus, and the Hebrew root of the word essentially means “to miss.” The same root is used in Judges 20:16 in describing men who could sling a stone and not miss.
i. Peter-Contesse on the word translated sins: “At the heart of its meaning is the notion of ‘missing the mark,’ or ‘failure to attain something,’ or ‘to be out of harmony with someone,’ or ‘not to be in a normal and right relationship with someone.’ In this case, it is God that has been harmed.”
ii. Sins unintentionally: “These words recognise an aspect of sin which we are at least in danger of thinking of lightly. There is a great tendency to imagine that sin is only in the will. There is a sense in which this is true. Guilt never attaches to sin until it is an act of the will. But imperfection and pollution exclude from God, even though there be no responsibility for them.” (Morgan)
iii. Adam Clarke quoted an Anglican litany: “That it may please thee to give us true repentance; to forgive us all our sins, negligences, and ignorances; and to endue us with the grace of thy Holy Spirit, to amend our lives according to thy HOLY WORD.”
c. Against any of the commandments of the LORD: Though God made a distinction between sins unintentionally done, and those done presumptuously (as in Numbers 15:30), a sin against any of the commandments of the LORD had to be dealt with. This is the principle of James 2:10.
i. As this chapter unfolds, God will direct a sacrifice for unintentional sins for the priests, for Israel as a whole, for the rulers, and for a common person. From the highest to the lowest in the land, God cared about unintentional sins.
2. (3-12) The sin offering for a priest.
If the anointed priest sins, bringing guilt on the people, then let him offer to the LORD for his sin which he has sinned a young bull without blemish as a sin offering. He shall bring the bull to the door of the tabernacle of meeting before the LORD, lay his hand on the bull’s head, and kill the bull before the LORD. Then the anointed priest shall take some of the bull’s blood and bring it to the tabernacle of meeting. The priest shall dip his finger in the blood and sprinkle some of the blood seven times before the LORD, in front of the veil of the sanctuary. And the priest shall put some of the blood on the horns of the altar of sweet incense before the LORD, which is in the tabernacle of meeting; and he shall pour the remaining blood of the bull at the base of the altar of the burnt offering, which is at the door of the tabernacle of meeting. He shall take from it all the fat of the bull as the sin offering. The fat that covers the entrails and all the fat which is on the entrails, the two kidneys and the fat that is on them by the flanks, and the fatty lobe attached to the liver above the kidneys, he shall remove, as it was taken from the bull of the sacrifice of the peace offering; and the priest shall burn them on the altar of the burnt offering. But the bull’s hide and all its flesh, with its head and legs, its entrails and offal—the whole bull he shall carry outside the camp to a clean place, where the ashes are poured out, and burn it on wood with fire; where the ashes are poured out it shall be burned.
The sin of the priest is considered first: he was in a position of leadership. If he was wrong, the people were wrong. (The term “anointed” implies that the High Priest himself is in view.)
He was to bring a young bullock—the most valuable animal of all. His responsibility was the greatest. Privilege carries with it responsibility.
My brethren, be not many masters, knowing that we shall receive the greater condemnation.
James 3:1
This part of the ritual is similar to the burnt offering.
To secure God’s relationship with the offender... “Seven” implies completeness.
If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness.
1 John 1:9
The Horn was a recognized symbol of power, authority. The remainder was poured out at the bottom of the brazen altar. This satisfied the conscience of the sinner and removed the guilt complex. This remedy for the conviction of sin was the only remedy that could satisfy the mind and heart.
When Christ forgives you your sin, He also forgives you. That is nothing more to be said about it. It is totally and forever settled. He is adequate. At this point, the ritual follows that of the peace (or fellowship) offering
The sin has been forgiven and fellowship is restored. The fat is burned upon the altar: it represents the very best.
At this point, however, there is a radical departure from the other offerings: the remainder is taken outside the camp and burned there.
Unsparing justice. This is to emphasize the exceeding sinfulness of sin. There is nothing that could be mistaken for consecration here. This points to Christ, the sin-bearer; one who was “made sin for us” (2 Cor 5:21).
Without the camp: Four miles from the Holy Place.
We have an altar, whereof they have no right to eat which serve the tabernacle. For the bodies of those beasts, whose blood is brought into the sanctuary by the high priest for sin, are burned without the camp. Wherefore Jesus also, that he might sanctify the people with his own blood, suffered without the gate. Let us go forth therefore unto him without the camp, bearing his reproach. For here have we no continuing city, but we seek one to come.
Hebrews 13:10-14 Only Christ is adequate.
Now we turn from the priests to the congregation itself.
a. If the anointed priest sins, bringing guilt on the people: If a priest needed a sin offering to be made on his behalf, a bull had to be sacrificed on his behalf, with the priest identifying with the victim through the laying on of hands.
i. The presence of a separate ritual of cleansing for the sin of the priest shows that they had a greater accountability before the LORD and were, in a sense, judged according to a stricter measure. James applied the same principle to teachers among God’s people (James 3:1).
ii. Most think that the anointed priest refers to the high priest. However, it is worth remembering that even the “common” priests were anointed (as commanded in Exodus 29). It may refer to anyone who was an anointed priest.
b. Priest sins…offer to the LORD for his sin…a sin offering: Paul wrote in 2 Corinthians 5:21: For He made Him who knew no sin to be sin for us, that we might become the righteousness of God in Him. According to Adam Clarke, the word for sin in 2 Corinthians 5:21 (hamartian) is the same ancient Greek word used in the Septuagint (an ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures) to translate sin offering. In 2 Corinthians 5:21, Paul said that God the Father made Jesus Christ our sin offering.
c. Lay his hand on the bull’s head: The idea of laying the hand on the head of the sacrifice is repeated five times in the chapter – at 4:4, 4:15, 4:24, 4:29, and 4:33. It is an important part of the idea of the sacrifice of a substitute. Spurgeon considered two important aspects of this symbol.
i. The Meaning of the Symbol.
· It was a confession of sin.
· It was a consent to the plan of substitution.
· It was the acceptance of that victim in the sinner’s place.
· It was a belief in the transference of the sin.
· It was a dependence, a leaning on the victim.
ii. The Simplicity of the Symbol.
· There was no preparatory ceremony.
· There was to be nothing in his hand.
· There was nothing to be done with the hand, except to lay it.
· There was nothing to be done to the man’s hand.
iii. A young bull: “The same sacrifice that should be offered for the sin of the whole people, [Leviticus 4:14] to note the heinousness of the priest’s sin above others. The sins of teachers are the teachers of sins.” (Trapp)
iv. A young bull: “Our Lord Jesus Christ is like the firstling of the bullock, the most precious thing in heaven, strong for service, docile in obedience, one who was willing and able to labour for our sakes; and he was brought as a perfect victim, without spot or blemish, to suffer in our stead.” (Spurgeon)
d. To the tabernacle: In contrast to the sacrifices for unintentional sins for others, the blood of the sacrifice for the priest was brought into the tabernacle itself for application to various places in the tabernacle. This shows, that in some sense, the sins of the priest were regarded as more serious.
e. Sprinkle some of the blood seven times before the LORD, in front of the veil of the sanctuary: The blood of the sacrificed bull was collected, then applied by sprinkling to the veil in the tabernacle of meeting and to the altar of sweet incense. The remaining blood was poured out at the base of the altar of the burnt offering, outside the tent of the tabernacle.
i. Sin is an offense against the holiness of God, and so the veil guarding His holy presence must receive sacrificial blood. This blood had to be sprinkled seven times before the LORD – before the veil or curtain that separated the holy place and the Holy of Holies. This showed the seriousness of even unintentional sins for the priest.
· “The sevenfold sprinkling was also part of the Day of Atonement ritual (Lev 16:14, 15, 19), the purification of the leper ritual (14:7), and the dedication of the altar (8:11).” (Rooker)
· “Whether the blood fell on the veil or not we are not certain; but we have good reason to believe that it was cast upon the veil itself. The veil, of costliest tapestry, would thus become by degrees more and more like a vesture dipped in blood.” (Spurgeon)
ii. Sin affects our prayer life, and so the altar of sweet incense representing the prayers of God’s people must receive sacrificial blood.
iii. Sin makes our atonement necessary, so the altar of the burnt offering – the place of atonement – must receive sacrificial blood.
f. He shall take from it all the fat of the bull as the sin offering: The fatty portions of the animal were offered to God. In this, the best was dedicated to God (as in the peace offering of Leviticus 3) after the blood covered the sin.
g. The bull’s hide and all its flesh…burn it on wood with fire: The valuable hide and the meat of the bull were burnt outside the camp, along with the worthless portions of the bull. It could not be offered to God, but it was burned as if it were a worthless thing. This had to be done outside the camp to show that the effects and memory of this sin were removed from the people.
i. All selfish motives had to be removed in the sin offering. If a priest brought the offering, the whole offering had to be destroyed. If a non-priest brought the offering, the priest could eat of it, but not the one bringing the sacrifice. You couldn’t bring a sin offering because you wanted meat or leather, but only because you wanted to be made right with God. This emphasized the idea that there is no benefit to our sin.
ii. Paul expressed this attitude in Philippians 3:7-8: But what things were gain to me, these I have counted loss for Christ. Yet indeed I also count all things loss for the excellence of the knowledge of Christ Jesus my Lord, for whom I have suffered the loss of all things, and count them as rubbish, that I may gain Christ.
3. (13-21) The sin offering for the whole congregation of Israel.
‘Now if the whole congregation of Israel sins unintentionally, and the thing is hidden from the eyes of the assembly, and they have done something against any of the commandments of the LORD in anything which should not be done, and are guilty; when the sin which they have committed becomes known, then the assembly shall offer a young bull for the sin, and bring it before the tabernacle of meeting. And the elders of the congregation shall lay their hands on the head of the bull before the LORD. Then the bull shall be killed before the LORD. The anointed priest shall bring some of the bull’s blood to the tabernacle of meeting. Then the priest shall dip his finger in the blood and sprinkle it seven times before the LORD, in front of the veil. And he shall put some of the blood on the horns of the altar which is before the LORD, which is in the tabernacle of meeting; and he shall pour the remaining blood at the base of the altar of burnt offering, which is at the door of the tabernacle of meeting. He shall take all the fat from it and burn it on the altar. And he shall do with the bull as he did with the bull as a sin offering; thus he shall do with it. So the priest shall make atonement for them, and it shall be forgiven them. Then he shall carry the bull outside the camp, and burn it as he burned the first bull. It is a sin offering for the assembly.
The victim for the entire congregation is the same as for the priest: a young bullock, the most valuable animal available. The lesson: there is, in addition to individual responsibility, corporate responsibility.
God judges nations, and many people who didn’t participate in the sin of the nation are judged along with it. [There are some people who say they are going to stay in a liberal church and try to witness to it. Where did they get that idea? It is not in the Word of God (Cf. Rev 18:4).]
It was the elders, in the name of the people, that conveyed the guilt of the people to the head of the victim. (It was the elders that put Jesus to death with the priests. Their act was a national rejection of Jesus.) The rest (through v.21) is the same as for the priest.
a. If the whole congregation of Israel sins unintentionally: The procedure was the same as the sin offering on behalf of a priest as described in the previous verses. The bull was killed, the blood of the bull was distributed by sprinkling to the veil, the altar of incense, and the remainder poured out at the base of the altar of burnt offering. Then the bull and its fat were burned on the altar, while the entrails and the hide were burned outside the camp.
b. The elders of the congregation shall lay their hands on the head of the bull before the LORD: This was the one significant difference between the sin offering for the whole congregation of Israel and the sin offering for the priests (Leviticus 4:3-12). The elders of the congregation laid their hands on the head of the bull, representing the nation.
i. “This laying of the hand does not appear to have been a mere touch of contact, but in some other places of Scripture has the meaning of leaning heavily…. Surely this is the very essence and nature of faith, which doth not only bring us into contact with the great Substitute, but teaches us to lean upon Him with all the burden of our guilt; so that if our sins be very weighty, yet we see Him as able to bear them all.” (Spurgeon)
c. It shall be forgiven them: This is the wonderful assurance. There is forgiveness when we come to God as He commands, and receive atonement as He directs. This promise is even greater under the New Covenant (1 John 1:9).
4. (22-26) The sin offering for a ruler of the people.
‘When a ruler has sinned, and done something unintentionally against any of the commandments of the LORD his God in anything which should not be done, and is guilty, or if his sin which he has committed comes to his knowledge, he shall bring as his offering a kid of the goats, a male without blemish. And he shall lay his hand on the head of the goat, and kill it at the place where they kill the burnt offering before the LORD. It is a sin offering. The priest shall take some of the blood of the sin offering with his finger, put it on the horns of the altar of burnt offering, and pour its blood at the base of the altar of burnt offering. And he shall burn all its fat on the altar, like the fat of the sacrifice of the peace offering. So the priest shall make atonement for him concerning his sin, and it shall be forgiven him.
All are guilty; but the responsibility is different. Here the reference is to a civil ruler.
Rulers are ordained by God and thereby are directly responsible to God. He is their most important “constituency.”
A kid of goats was not as valuable as the bullock. The rest is the same as for the priest or the private citizen.
a. When a ruler has sinned: The procedure was similar to, yet distinct from, the offering for a priest or the nation at large.
i. Clarke on ruler: “Under the term nasi, it is probable that any person is meant who held any kind of political dignity among the people, though the rabbis generally understand it of the king.”
b. If his sin which he has committed comes to his knowledge: We can’t specifically deal with our sins until we know we have committed them. When we do become aware of those sins, we are responsible to confess them and deal with them in light of God’s sacrifice, ultimately fulfilled in the sacrificial death of Jesus on the cross.
c. He shall bring as his offering a kid of the goats: The sin offering for a ruler was a lesser animal than that for the priest or the nation as a whole. This demonstrates that the ruler was not greater than God (represented by the priests) or the people as a whole.
d. The priest shall take: After the ruler lay his hand on the head of the goat, the animal was killed and its blood drained. The blood never came into the tent of meeting as was the case with the sin offering for a priest (Leviticus 4:3-12) or for the people as a whole (Leviticus 4:13-21). The blood was wiped on the horns of the altar of burnt offering, and the remaining blood was poured out at the base of the altar of burnt offering.
e. He shall burn all its fat on the altar: The fat was burned before the LORD, but according to Leviticus 6:24-30, the rest of the animal was available for the priest.
5. (27-35) The sin offering for a common man or woman.
‘If anyone of the common people sins unintentionally by doing something against any of the commandments of the LORD in anything which ought not to be done, and is guilty, or if his sin which he has committed comes to his knowledge, then he shall bring as his offering a kid of the goats, a female without blemish, for his sin which he has committed. And he shall lay his hand on the head of the sin offering, and kill the sin offering at the place of the burnt offering. Then the priest shall take some of its blood with his finger, put it on the horns of the altar of burnt offering, and pour all the remaining blood at the base of the altar. He shall remove all its fat, as fat is removed from the sacrifice of the peace offering; and the priest shall burn it on the altar for a sweet aroma to the LORD. So the priest shall make atonement for him, and it shall be forgiven him.
‘If he brings a lamb as his sin offering, he shall bring a female without blemish. Then he shall lay his hand on the head of the sin offering, and kill it as a sin offering at the place where they kill the burnt offering. The priest shall take some of the blood of the sin offering with his finger, put it on the horns of the altar of burnt offering, and pour all the remaining blood at the base of the altar. He shall remove all its fat, as the fat of the lamb is removed from the sacrifice of the peace offering. Then the priest shall burn it on the altar, according to the offerings made by fire to the LORD. So the priest shall make atonement for his sin that he has committed, and it shall be forgiven him.
This is for the common person, the private citizen. The offering is for a sin through ignorance, but a sin against a commandment of God. His guilt cannot be just hearsay, but the guilt must be established.
[The failure to employ Matthew 18:15-18 is astonishingly widespread within the Body of Christ today! A shockingly widespread use of hearsay as the sole means for governance is appalling.]
A female was permitted; this was considered as less value than any previous offering. Yet an offering was required.
The important truth is that complete forgiveness was secured for the sinner. This is precisely what was accomplished for us when Christ died.
In whom we have redemption through his blood, the forgiveness of sins, according to the riches of his grace;
Ephesians 1:7
a. If anyone of the common people sins unintentionally: This was the same procedure for a ruler of the people, except that a female goat or a lamb could be offered instead of a male goat.
i. The point is obvious and must not be overlooked: God cares about the unintentional sins of common people. “It is very needful, then, for us to be perpetually cleansed in the precious blood of Christ. We must ask to be forgiven for the many sins which we know not, as well as for those we know. The work of confession and forgiveness must therefore go on to life’s end, applied to each heart and conscience by the Holy Spirit.” (Meyer)
ii. “It is true the sins of great men cover a larger space, but yet there must be a bloody sacrifice for the smallest offenses. For the sins of a housewife or of a servant, of a peasant, or of a crossing-sweeper, there must be the same sacrifice as for the sins of the greatest and most influential.” (Spurgeon)
b. He shall bring as his offering: After the common person lay his hand on the head of the sin offering, the animal was killed and its blood drained. The blood never came into the tent of meeting as was the case with the sin offering for a priest (Leviticus 4:3-12) or for the people as a whole (Leviticus 4:13-21). The blood was wiped on the horns of the altar of burnt offering, and the remaining blood was poured out at the base of the altar of burnt offering.
i. “Sometimes, according to the Rabbis, those who brought the victim leaned with all their might, and pressed upon it as if they seemed to say by the act, “I put the whole burden, weight, and force of my sin upon this unblemished victim.” O my soul, lean hard on Christ, throw all the weight of thy sin upon him, for he is able to bear it and came on purpose to bear it.” (Spurgeon)
ii. The constant reference to blood is unmistakable. “There are many ways by which men may die without the shedding of blood; the capital punishment of our own country is free from this accompaniment; but our Saviour was ordained to die by a death in which the shedding of blood was conspicuous, as if to link him forever with those sacrifices which were made as types and symbols of his great atoning work.” (Spurgeon)
c. Then the priest shall burn it on the altar, according to the offerings made by fire to the LORD: Again, presumably, the rest of the animal was available for the priest. This meant that the sin offering for a civil ruler or common man was less costly than the sin offering for a priest or the nation as a whole, and that the only profit a priest could gain from his own sin offering was spiritual, not material.
